Japan and Germany Essay Example for Free

Japan and Germany Essay From 1941 to 1946, American foreign policy was dominated by World War II and underwent an enormous change concerning the United States’ role in the world, as isolationism was discarded and America became the predominant power in the world over a course of just a few years. Prior to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, America played a very limited role in world affairs, the result of bitter memories of what many considered to be unacceptably high American sacrifices during World War I. From 1942 to 1945, however, America found itself at war both in Europe and throughout the Pacific. Quickly, isolationism seemed to be a distant memory. In the Pacific theater, the United States declared war on the Empire of Japan following the attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States later demanded an unconditional surrender from Japan, a decision which some argued would only prolong the war. Those who held this position felt that Japan would fight far longer and fiercer if there were no possibility of compromise. Unconditional surrender, however, was adopted as a policy. This surrender was brought about by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which followed the obliteration of Japan’s largest cities by conventional bombs. Many argue that the real intention in America’s nuclear bombing of Japan was to serve as a warning to the Soviet Union, America’s wartime ally but soon-to-be adversary. America also wanted to force Japan’s surrender quickly so that the Soviet Union would not invade and occupy northern Japan. If that had happened, the occupation would have been divided between the Soviets and the Americans, much like what happened in Germany. By forcing Japan’s surrender before the Soviet Union could commit large number of forces there, America ensured that Japan would be firmly in the American post-war sphere of influence. In Europe, America adopted an identical policy as it had in the Pacific; the war would not end until Nazi Germany surrendered unconditionally. In the European theater, America fought with allies far more than in the Pacific. As American and British forces closed in on Germany from the west, the Soviet Union advanced from Germany’s east. Eventually the Americans and Soviets would meet in Berlin, which had been captured by the Soviets. Much as in Japan, America had worn down Germany with carpet bombing of many of Germany’s largest cities. After Germany’s surrender in the spring of 1945, American set about planning its postwar occupation. The primary concern for the Americans was to ensure that the Soviets did not advance any further west than Berlin, as the Americans feared that the Soviet Union was an inherently aggressive nation that would roll over western Europe, just as Hitler had done, if the United States did not deter them with military forces and political support for its European allies. Almost immediately after World War II, the Cold War began as the Americans and Soviets consolidated their influence over areas of Europe that they had liberated from the Nazis. The United States sought to bolster its European allies by military alliance in the form of NATO and by economic aid in the form of the Marshall Plan. The years 1941 through 1946 represented the largest shift in American foreign policy in the history of the country. America went from a relatively isolationist country to one which produced half of the world’s wealth, had military personnel stationed all across the globe, and entered into official foreign alliances for the first time in its history. After the war, there was no return to isolationism, which is evidenced by the fact that American soldiers are stationed in Japan and Germany to this day.

Adaptive Block Steganography Based Crypting Technique

Adaptive Block Steganography Based Crypting Technique A Novel Approach on Adaptive Block Steganography Based Crypting Technique for Secure Message Passing AbhipsaKundu,  Sudipta Sahana Abstract The enhancement of using internet system has increased the ease of information communication which throws challenge in data security. Now in current days safe and sound data transfer become more essential and significant. Cryptography and Steganography are two significant areas of research that involve a number of applications. Cryptography is the technology that involves to encode a message text into an unreadable text form that is known as cipher text and thesteganography is an art and technology of hiding information in a multimedia file without causing statistically significant change to thisfile for involving a secret message transmission. In this proposed work the plain text is transformed to a cipher text using Cryptography technique, where different person can able to use their preferable key for encoding the text and also some Boolean algebraic operations are used in the succeeding steps and after that this cipher text is hidden inside a gray scale image as a cover media wit h dimension of 2n x 2n and a secure pictorial block steganography based encryptionalgorithm is proposed for transferring text messageand also mentioned the Cryptanalysis and Steganalysis method for retrieving data at receiver side. The experimental result shows that for using different length of text message the distortion of picture is very much less that is negligible in open eyes. At last it can be mentioned that without knowing the appropriate knowledge of cryptanalysisand steganalysis retrieving of message is quite impossible. Keywords Cryptography, Steganography, Plain text, Cipher text, Cryptanalysis, Steganalysis. 1. Introduction Cryptography is generally a key enabling technology for protecting distributed systems. An encryption algorithm takes the original message and a key, and alters the original message mathematically based on the key bits to create a new encrypted message. Likewise a decryption algorithm takes an encrypted message and restores it to its original form using one or more keys. There are two general concepts of cryptographic keys: Private key and public key system. When same key is use for encryption and decryption both purpose then this is identified as symmetric key encryption by using secret key. Where public-key encryption is also known as asymmetric-key encryption. The private key is known only to your computer, and used for only encrypt the message while the public key is given by your computer to any computer that wants to communicate securely with it.To decode an encrypted message, a computer must use the public key. SYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY ASYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY In this paper, secure data transfer by using cryptography with Boolean algebra and key concept is focused where different body can use a particular mentioned length key that generally cant be guessed by a third person. Steganography is the process of communication of secret data by using a multimedia carrier like image, video, audio or it also can be send by using an IP Datagram. Generally people cannot detect the secret communication of data. Message to be hidden is concealed in another file called cover media. Combination of secret message and cover file is called as – stego media. The stego function operates over cover media and the message (to be hidden) along with a stego-key (optionally) to produce a stego media. STEGANOGRAPHY AND STEGANALYSIS The paper is organized as follow. Section 2 describes the different types of steganography Techniques. In Section 3 section the algorithms of cryptography, steganography for data encryption techniqueon the other hand cryptanalysis and steganalysis forthe decryption technique are discussed followed by an example in Section 4. Section 5 shows the Analysis Work. Finally, in Section 6 the conclusion of this paper is included. 2. Related work In this section the past work related to the problem of hidden text in an image file is analyzed. A literature survey in this extent finds an amount of work is done in encrypting the text message and also decoding the text. Here the methodology and highlights of contributions, conventions is summarized. In M. Bellare [1] formalized the new cryptographic primitive, Message-Locked Encryption (MLE), where the key under which encryption and decryption are accomplished is itself derived from the message. MLE delivers a method to reach secured duplication (space-efficient secure outsourced storage), an objective currently embattled by numerous cloud-storage providers. On the theoretical side the challenge is standard model explanations, and this technique makes Rig Das et al. [2] performed the Huffman encoding upon the secret message /image and then embedded each of the encrypted bits, the size of Huffman encoded bit stream, Huffman table into the cover image by altering the least significant bit (LSB) of each of the pixels. G.KarthigaiSeivi at al. [3] proposed a technique of finding the edge of the image using the Least-Significant-Bit (LSB) algorithm by employing Laplacian detector, and then data is hidden on center pixels whose blocks are located at the sharper edges. Yam bernJinaChanu at al. [4] describes a short survey on different types of steganography techniques for imagein spatial and transform domains and steganalysis techniques for the detection of secret message in the image in spatial domain by mentioning the strong points and weak points of the techniques. In k. singla et al. [5] proposed a hash based Steganography approach for protected steganography using edge detection. The method accomplishes high embedding capacity and enhances the quality of the encoded image. This technique first detects the edges in the image by well-known canny method and then the hash sort is used to embed the text data in to the edges of the color image. The hash function delivers a secure and fast method for image steganography. InS.Malik, A. Sardana [6] proposed unique methodology A Keyless Approach to Image Encryption without the use of encryption keys. The core idea behind this technique employs Sieving, Separation and Shuffling to produce random portions such that with minimal computation, the original secret image can be recovered from the random portions without any loss of image quality. Ali Daneshkhah et al. in his A More Secure Steganography Method in Spatial Domain [7] paper proposed a technique in which, the two bits of message is embedded in a pixel in a way that not only the Least Significant Bit (LSB) of picture element is allowed to change but also the second bit plane and fourth bit plane are allowed to be manipulated, but the point is in each embedding process only one alternation inone bit plane is allowed to happen. It is compared by the method LSB-Matching, the results shows this S. Sarreshtedari et al. [8] proposed a high capacity method for transform domain image steganography and algorithm works on the wavelet transform coefficients of the original image to embed the secret data byretaining integrity of the wavelet coefficients at high capacity embedding. 3. Algorithm 3.1 Cryptography Algorithm: 3.1.1 Password Matrix: STEP-1: Different password can be chosen for different PT but always it will be reserved 8 characters length. STEP 2: Transformevery single character of the password into its corresponding ASCII value. STEP 3: Convert each ASCII value into its 8 bit binary representation and place them in separate rows to generate a password matrix. 3.1.2 Generation of Auxiliary Keys : STEP 4: For that purpose the diagonal elements of password matrix is chosen as the first auxiliary key AK1, beginning from bottom left corner bit toterminate in top right corner bit. STEP 5: The second auxiliary password AK2 is generated by retaining the 0th bit of AK1 as the 0th bit of AK2 and doing XOR operation between the nth bit and (n+1)th bit of AK1 to obtain (n+1)th bit of AK2. And this process has further carry on for other AKs where from AK2 to AK3 and from AK(n) to AK(n+1) has been got. STEP-6: The number of Auxiliary keys generated depends on the number of letters in the plain text. 3.1.3 Formation of Cipher Text: STEP-7: Choose a plain text of variable length and calculate its length. STEP-8:  Change each character into its ASCII value and then into its equivalent 8 bit binary representation at the end arrange them as a matrix of nx8 where n is size of letters in plain text. STEP-9:  Perform bitwise XOR operation in between the binary values P1, P2, P3,†¦,Pn and the auxiliary keys AK1, AK2, AK3, †¦.,AKn respectively. STEP-10:  Complement the evenposition bits (column no. : 2,4,6,8) of every row of the last transformed value. STEP-11:  Divide the last generated 8 bits values into 4 parts each part having 2 bits, numbering them 1,2,3,4 and now arrange them as 4,2,1,3. STEP-12:  8 bits of each row of the matrix now has to be reversed. STEP-13: At last get our Cipher text 8 bit binary representation and convert it tocorresponding decimal value or the ASCII Value. This text will be transferred. 3.2 Steganography Algorithm: In this paper we have considered a gray scale image first; where we can encrypt the cipher text (encrypted data after cryptography process). At first we calculate the length of the cipher text and converted the text into its corresponding ASCII value. The size of the gray scale image is 256256. STEP-1: Taken the ASCII value cipher text as an input. STEP-2: Calculate the number of ASCII value of cipher text and stored it into a variable CT . STEP-3: Taken a gray scale image with dimension of 2n x 2n. STEP-4: Apply the partial BTB technique on this image with n x n size block matrix and each matrix Contain 2(n-m) x 2(n-m) (where, n = 2m) matrix size. STEP-5: Calculate the number of ASCII value of cipher text and stored it into a variable CT. STEP-6: Now convert the ASCII value of CT to its binary value of 8 digit and for getting ‘1’ from the corresponding binary value of CT the image pixel value has been increased two and also for getting ‘0’ this pixel value has been increase one. STEP-7: Now check the number of digit in CT. If it is less than or equal to n then only the 1st block 1st bit placed into 1st image block (1,1 position ),then 1st block 2nd bit placed into 2nd image block(1,1 position) thus the process will continue less than n (no. of character) or equal to n time. STEP-4: If the no. of character is greater than n then the 8 bit greater positions will be considered or Then the n+1 character 1st block 1st bit placed into 1st image block(8,8 position), 1st block 2ndbit place into 2nd image block (8,8 position) such as 2n+1 character 1st block 1st bit placed into1st image block (16,16 position),1st block 2nd bit placed into 2nd image block(16,16 position),then for 3n+1 characters to 4n (24,24 positions) will be considered and for 4n+1 to 5n (32,32) positions will be considered. STEP-5: This coded image will be transferred to the receiver side. 3.3 Steganalysis Algorithm: At receiver side the reverse technique of the previous method hasto be followed for decaying the image matrix and easily the text will be retrieve by the decryption algorithm. STEP-1: At first we have taken the Stego image that is got from sender side and then collect the original cover image. STEP-2: Compare both image and make a size of 256256 matrix contained the differentiate value of these two images where most of the values are zero excepting some are 2s and 1s. STEP-3: Neglect all those 0 values and arrange the others digits in a separate matrix whose size of column is 8. It is very imperative that the arrangement of the digits must not be hampered from the previous order. STEP-4:After getting the new matrix the number of the row signifies the number of characters present in the CT. STEP-5: Now replace the value of 2 with ‘1’ and 1 with ‘0’ and after that which matrix will be generated this is the 8 bit binary representation of our CT. STEP-6: Now convert the binary value with the corresponding decimal value and got the ASCII value representation of CT. 3.4 Cryptanalysis Algorithm: STEP-1: Generate the PASSWORD MATRIX that was described in the previous section 3.1. STEP-2: As well as create the AUXILARY KEYS from password matrix maintain the same rule followed as 3.1. STEP-3: Taken the ASCII value of Cipher text and convert them as 8 bit binary representation. Arrange the value of bits in nx8 matrix where n = size of CT. STEP-4: Reverse the each 8 bits values of every single row. STEP-5: Divide the last generated 8 bits values into 4 parts each part having 2 bits, numbering them 4,2,1,3 and now arrange them as 1,2,3,4. STEP-6:  Complement the odd bits (column no.:1,3,5,7) of every row of the last transformed value. STEP-7: Perform bitwise XOR operation in between the binary values of last transformed CT1, CT2, CT3,†¦,CTn and the auxiliary keys AK1, AK2, AK3, †¦.,AKn respectively And then got the original P1, P2, P3,†¦.Pn. 4. Example: 4.1 Cryptography Algorithm: Suppose our plain text is EARTH that has to be securely transferred to the receiver side. 4.1.1 Password Matrix: Suppose our 8 letter word password matrix is UNIVERSE= Table 4.1.1: 8 Bit Binary Representation As per mentioned in the algorithm for 5 letter plain text 5 auxiliary key will be formed at first. 4.1.2 Auxiliary Key Formation: After taking bottom left corner to top right corner diagonally elements we will get 01000011. That is AK1. Table: 4.1.2(Formation of auxiliary keys)Table: 4.1.3 (8 bits representation of plain text) Table: 4.1.4 (XOR operation between AKs with plain text)Table 4.1.5(Complement even bit position) Table: 4.1.6 (Rearrangement of columns)Table : 4.1.7(Reverse Each 8 bits of every Row) 4.2 Steganography Algorithm: Consider n = 8 and m = 3. The ASCII value representation of the Cipher text is 8 bit Binary value representation. We have reserved a 256 x 256 size of gray scale image for hiding the bit representation of cipher text, as the distortion of gray scale image is very much less than color image so it is considered. At first we will decompose this image at 8X8 matrix, where each cell of 8X8 matrix will consist 3232 size of matrix. N00 N01 N02 N03 N04 N05 N06 N07 N10 N11 N12 N13 N14 N15 N16 N17 N20 N21 N22 N23 N24 N25 N26 N27 N30 N31 N32 N33 N34 N35 N36 N37 N40 N41 N42 N43 N44 N45 N46 N47 N50 N51 N52 N53 N54 N55 N

A Study Of The Life And Career Of Lord Alfred Tennyson and Selected Cri

A Study Of The Life And Career Of Lord Alfred Tennyson And Selected Criticism Of His Works Whether a person likes or dislikes the works of Lord Alfred Tennyson, most would agree that he was one of the most influential writers of his time period. Tennyson grew up in a wealthy family never wanting for anything. English author often regarded as the chief representative of the Victorian age in poetry. Tennyson succeeded Wordsworth as Poet Laureate in 1850; he was appointed by Queen Victoria and served 42 years. Tennyson's works were melancholic, and reflected the moral and intellectual values of his time, which made them especially vulnerable for later critic. Alfred, Lord Tennyson was born in Somersby, Lincolnshire. His father, George Clayton Tennyson, a clergyman and rector, suffered from depression and was notoriously absentminded. Alfred began to write poetry at an early age in the style of Lord Byron. After spending four unhappy years in school he was tutored at home. Tennyson then studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he joined the literary club 'The Apostles' and met Arthur Hallam, who became his closest friend. The undergraduate society discussed contemporary social, religious, scientific, and literary issues. Encouraged by 'The Apostles', Tennyson published POEMS, CHIEFLY LYRICAL, in 1830, which included the popular 'Mariana'. He travelled with Hallam on the Continent. By 1830, Hallam had become engaged to Tennyson's sister Emily. After his father's death in 1831 Tennyson returned to Somersby without a degree. His next book, POEMS (1833), received unfavorable reviews, and Tennyson ceased to publish for nearly ten years. Hallam died suddenly on the same year in Vienna. It was a heavy blow to Tennyson. He began to write 'Im Memorian' for his lost friend - the work took seventeen years. A revised volume of Poems, which included the 'The Lady of Shalott' and 'The Lotus-eaters'. 'Morte d'Arthur' and 'Ulysses' appeared in 1842 in the two-volume POEMS, and established his reputation as a writer. In 'Ulysses Tennyson portrayed the Greek after his travels, longing past days: "How dull it is to pause, to make an end, / To rust unburnished, not to shine in use!" After marrying Emily Sellwood, whom he had already met in 1836,... ... heart blend and break, one against the other, with the pathetic inconsistency.† 7 As for Tennyson’s other great work, â€Å"Idylls of the King†, people seemed to give it a much nicer criticism. Prince Albert felt that the poems, which he thourghly enjoyed, â€Å"rekindle the feeling with which the legends of King Arthur must have inspired the chivalry of old, whilst the graceful form in which they are presented blends those feelings with the softer tone of our present age.† 8 Tennyson’s other popular works include: â€Å"The Princess†, â€Å"Maud† and â€Å"Drama† . These are just a few of his poems Tennyson wrote hundreds in his career. It seems that the critics of Tennyson’s work, either loves it or hates it there is rarely a middle ground. Most critics seems to enjoy â€Å"Idylls of the King† and give it much better reviews than those of â€Å"In Memoriam† which people don’t seem to like as much. Lord Alfred Tennyson (1809-92) was considered England's greatest poet in the last half of the 19th century. People from every walk of life understood and loved his work.

Promoting Success of Sainsbury Essay -- Sainsbury Supermarkets Consume

Promoting Success of Sainsbury (A) Describe the business and its aims and objective Logo: Sainsbury's - making life taste better In this report I will be investigating how marketing in business helps using organisation that has a national promotional campaign for its products or services. Sainsbury’s Supermarkets The business I have chosen to investigate is the large supermarket store called J Sainsbury’s; Sainsbury’s is one of the top supermarkets that you are able to buy products and services at a good quality. Sainsbury’s supermarkets were established in 1869 by John James and Mary Ann Sainsbury’s and is Britain’s longest standing major food retailer chain. Sainsbury’s is a very large supermarket and employs over 145,000 people of these 60% are part time and 40% are full time. 62% of all the employees they employ are women. The supermarket now have many types of store where customers can get products from but a large supermarket will offer customers 34,000 products and over half are Sainsbury’s own brand including fresh produce form tomatoes to spinach. Logo: J Sainsbury plc In addition to a wide range of quality food and grocery products many stores offer bread baked while your shopping, meat and fish counters, pharmacies, coffee shops, restaurants and petrol stations. Because of many of these services Sainsbury’s supermarkets are able to serve over 11 million customers a week and as at March 2004 had 583 stores throughout the United Kingdom. Sainsbury’s bank Sainsbury’s over the years now have not just been in the area of providing food products but now have a Sainsbury’s bank which was opened for business on the 19th of February 1997, this was a joint venture between Sainsbury’s and the bank of Scotland this was a big achievement for Sainsbury’s because they were the first bank of the UK this was a good groundbreaking venture for Sainsbury’s to take because they were able to attract 2 million customer accounts. Sainsbury’s also now provide a range of affordable services including life and health cover, personal loans, savings accounts and travel insurance. In the year 2003 Sainsbury’s bank was named the best provider in the money direct awards. Sainsbury’s today Sainsbury has seen a change in customers requirements with organic food healthier foods and convenience food all being top... ...nal and business objectives because Sainsbury’s will see positive correlations. If Sainsbury’s are able to achieve this more objectives can be met like delivering great services to customers The importance of the promotional aspect of the marketing mix is that the four ps are a means of communicating to the customer which is a very important tool without the promotional p it would cause a lot of problems and they will not be able to communicate products to their target audience in an effective way which will cause a decrease in sales and profits. By having the promotional p it will boost the image of Sainsbury’s which will allow more customers to know about the promotional campaign and the goings on of Sainsbury’s. It is also important that Sainsbury’s stick by their promise through their means of communicating so that they do not mislead customers into the wrong direction they will need to ensure that the availability of products are high standards and are the resources available at the right time and at the place also they will need also ensure that they keep their focus on their target market mix different target audience because this will get confusing.

A Defence of Individual Autonomy in a Multination Liberal State Essay

A Defence of Individual Autonomy in a Multination Liberal State Liberalism is committed to protecting the freedom to choose, question and revise one’s own conception of the good life. For this reason, liberalism defends (among many other things) freedom of conscience, expression and association, as well as mandatory, universal education. In Multicultural Citizenship, Will Kymlicka argues that the state is also obligated to ensure that the lifestyle options which are made available to an individual so that she can choose, question and revise her own conception of the good life, are meaningful to her by being understood by her in relation to her own "societal culture". He concludes, therefore, that in a multination liberal state, self-government rights should be granted to national minorities in order to guarantee that their members will have access to their own societal culture. However, in the case of an illiberal national minority, granting them the rights necessary to preserve their own societal culture will result in violations of the individual rights of their members. This is a serious problem for liberalism. Kymlicka proposes that we must accept such violations because the liberal state is not entitled to impose liberal values and practices on to a national minority. He suggests that the state should promote the voluntary liberalisation of the illiberal culture from within, and is only justified in using force in order to prevent severe violations of individual rights. In this paper I will argue that Kymlicka’s approach is lacking in some areas. I will argue that a multination liberal state should not grant self-government rights to a previously non-self-governing illiberal national minority unless the individual r... ...ial obligation, which does not apply to foreign nations, to take further steps, as outlined above, to their neighbouring fellow human beings. Endnotes 1 Will Kymlicka (1995), Multicultural Citizenship, (Clarendon Press, Oxford). p.76 2 Ibid., p.90 3 Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz (1990), ‘National Self-Determination’, Jounal of Philosophy, 87/9: 439-61. p.447-9 4 Supra, note 1, p.89 5 Ibid., p.83 6 Ronald Dworkin (1985), A Matter of Principle, (Harvard University Press, London). p.231 7 Supra, note 1, p.78 8 Ibid., p.168 9 Ibid., p.169 Bibliography Ronald Dworkin (1985), A Matter of Principle, (Harvard University Press, London). Will Kymlicka (1995), Multicultural Citizenship, (Clarendon Press, Oxford). Avishai Margalit and Joseph Raz (1990), ‘National Self-Determination’, Jounal of Philosophy, 87/9: 439-61.

Criminal Law Midterm

Midterm Criminal Law State v. Doug Homicide: The unlawful taking of the life of one human being by another. Actual Causation : The defendant’s act must have been the â€Å"cause in fact† of the victim’s death. Without the defendant’s actions, the victim would not have died. â€Å"But for† Doug shooting and killing Tom, he would not have died. Proximate Causation: A defendant’s actions are the proximate cause of the victim’s death if the result occurs as a consequence of the defendant’s act. There is no other casually connected act. The defendant’s conduct is the direct cause of the harm. Doug was the sole causal agent, and he brought about Tom’s death by shooting and killing him. Therefore, Doug was the proximate cause of Tom’s death. Murder: Murder is the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. Malice aforethought is the intention to cause the death of, or grievous bodily harm to, a human being. Because Doug shot and killed Tom he will be charged with murder. Because Doug went to a nearby drawer to grab a gun, and then shot Dan, there was malice aforethought. First Degree Murder: First degree murder is murder where there was premeditation, deliberation, and then willful killing. Doug was â€Å"fearing for his life† and did not have premeditation or deliberation. Doug will not be convicted of first degree murder. Second Degree Murder: Second degree murder is murder where there is malice aforethought but it was not premeditated. Because Doug did commit murder but did not premeditate, his charge will be second degree murder. Voluntary Manslaughter: Voluntary manslaughter is a killing done â€Å"on a sudden†, in the â€Å"heat of passion†, after â€Å"adequate provocation†. The Model Penal Code declares that a killing â€Å"which otherwise would be murder† is manslaughter under certain conditions. Because Tom threatened to â€Å"beat Doug badly†, and Doug then feared for his life, there was legally adequate provocation. Doug will argue that the killing was done in the â€Å"heat of passion†. Under the Model Penal Code, the killing would be considered committed under extreme emotional or mental disturbance . Because there was no â€Å"cooling off† period brought on by the sudden provocation, at a time when reason was disturbed, so there was no mens rea. Doug will be eligible for reduction to voluntary manslaughter. Self Defense: Self defense is a general right to defend oneself against the use of unlawful force. One may defend oneself with deadly force only if the attacker threatens him with serious bodily harm. Doug will contend that Tom threatened to â€Å"beat him badly†, and he was defending himself from serious bodily harm. Doug believed that he was in imminent danger, had no way to retreat, and that the use of deadly force was necessary to protect himself. The Jury will have to decide if Doug’s deadly force was excessive. Tom’s words carry a threat of serious bodily harm, but there was no unlawful force taken. Also, the jury will have to decide if Doug was the initial aggressor. Defense of Property: Use of force to defend one’s property or one’s self from harm is justified. A homeowner generally cannot use deadly force to defend his property. This is based on the judgment that human life is more valuable than property. Doug will argue that he was defending himself and his property and was acting in self defense. Doug should be able to mitigate a charge of murder to voluntary manslaughter. Because there was no unlawful force against Doug, self defense will most likely not be attainable.

Modern management

If Dollar General wished to raise the prices of an item that was previously priced lower than their competitor, there are a number of steps they should take to maintain control of the process. Perdue has eased the control of prices by building in some slack in the pricing system to allow for raised prices. The first step is precontrol, in this case determination of the appropriate price – i.e. controlling price changes so that they can raise the price of the product without losing too many sales. This requires analysis of the price elasticity of the item in order to determine how much they can raise the price. The second step is concurrent control – communication of the new price to the stores, which may include provision of new price tags, communication through company channels such as email or generated reports, etc. and monitoring by managers to make sure the price changes are implemented. The third step, of feedback control, is monitoring the price change in order to make sure that the price change did not produce more than the accepted loss of sales as determined in step one.   These steps will allow the stores to implement a higher price on a previously lower-priced product. ‘The CEO should consider the relatively low sales at higher square footage stores to be a symptom of a problem, not a problem in and of itself. Dollar General’s store layouts and inventory assignments are tightly controlled and optimized for maximum efficiency and sales. However, most of their stores are smaller stores, averaging 7,000 square feet or less. This puts the larger stores at a disadvantage because they are carrying a mix of products that may not be optimal for the store size. This means that the lower sales per square foot is a symptom of a non-optimal inventory mix and layout superimposed on a larger store, not a problem in and of itself. While it should be solved, it can be solved indirectly by analyzing the inventory and layout needs of the larger stores rather than directly tackling the lower sales. A discount retailer such as Dollar General should use all three types of control (precontrol, concurrent control and feedback control) when attempting to control shrink. Precontrol can include such measures as establishing shrink management practices, such as careful cash control and cash handling training for employees, stock handling procedures, and security, in order to prevent common anticipated problems. Concurrent control, such as monitoring of security systems and active employee observation, can prevent shrink from shoplifting and excess employee waste. Finally, feedback control in the form of incentives such as bonuses or prizes for stores with low shrink percentages can help to reinforce the precontrol and concurrent control measures taken. Control measures are most effective when all potential routes of control loss are considered and actions are taken at the appropriate level to deal with them. It would not be appropriate or effective for a manager or other controller to attempt to poor cash handling after each incident   – it is more effective to develop policies that mandate teaching employees proper cash handling beforehand. 1. Information quality is the degree to which information represents reality. Information timeliness is the extent to which the receipt of information allows decisions to be made in a timely manner in order to allow the business to benefit from its use. Nike is using the information gained from its information systems to determine its required inventory levels, which are dependent on the projecte d demand for the product. This means that information quality is important because less than quality information could mean that Nike focuses its manufacturing and distribution efforts in less than optimal areas. The initial implementation of the information system generated more than $100 million in incorrect orders due to lack of information quality. Information timeliness is also important to Nike. Because the information system is tied to the manufacturing and distribution system, the timeliness of the information provided directly impacts the organization’s ability to produce and distribute the appropriate inventory. If the information is not provided in a timely manner, the manufacturing and sales may appear to be reactive rather than proactive, and Nike may miss the top of their demand curve because information was provided too slowly or because the system generated orders too early. 2. The security issues for Nike’s sales forecasting and factory order system include automated threats such as worms, viruses etc, and internal sabotage by disgruntled employees and external breach by either hackers or industrial spies. Automated threats are a threat at any time when a system is connected to the Internet; while it is less common now than in the past, viruses may also be transmitted via infected media such as CD-Rom or removable solid-state media. Internal sabotage by disgruntled employees can also be a problem; in order to mitigate this, permissions and access to the system should be handled on a minimum required basis (each employee should be given only the permissions required to perform his or her job, and permissions should be actively managed as employees move from task to task). Outside breaches by hackers or industrial spies is a concern for Nike because they are a high-profile company in a highly competitive business, making them a tempting target for hackers to try to gather lucrative information from their information systems. 3. Currently Nike targets individual groups of consumers with games and information online that is targeted to their special interests, and provides an IM-based game for soccer fans. There are a number of other uses for the World Wide Web that could help Nike communicate with its customers. They could use online surveying techniques and online feedback forums to enhance their market strategies and improve their products and address customer complaints. They could also utilize the Web as a central platform for their marketing strategy, including running specially designed Web sites for high-profile new products, creating customer contests, games and trivia and building a Nike community around their sites. Nike also has opportunities to create product tie-ins based on the Web. Their IM soccer game is a prototype of a way in which games or custom-branded software can keep the Nike brand in front of their customers all the time. Streaming media allows for music and movie tie-ins delivered via the Web. Nike could also use the Web for internal purposes. For example, an employee recruiting web site could increase the number and quality of their job applicants, as well as provide a prescreening facility for the HR organization. Skillful use of the Web also portrays the image of a technologically savvy and forward-looking company, which is vital to its market viability. Modern management 1. Organizational resources are the prime variables that ultimately translate into the cumulative compilation of production output. It can be stated that production is the final result that is instrumented by several processes that make up the basic procedure of the production unit. The term ‘organizational resource’ can be enumerated as a compilation of different aspects that include variables like personnel, motivation, cost of raw materials, supply chain management, knowledge management, material processing and market forecast analysis. All these together ensure the success of the ultimate quality and quantity of the production along with the favorable pricing per unit for the produced output. Thus it could be mentioned that the relation between the organizational resources and the production is inseparable and vital for the health of the industry. For an industry to obtain favorable conditions in the market it is necessary to formulate a strategy that would enable the organization to keep every aspect of the units involved in a well passed manner. The purchase of material would ensure that the value is obtained out of the purchase while the supply chain would ensure that there is no wastage of materials and the materials are presented to the processing unit in proper time. The same principals are true with the processing units too. The efficiency level of the personnel involved along with their motivation level ensures the best possible production out of the initial possesses involved. Thus it could be stated that organizational resources and production relation is vital and inseparable for any organization and the ultimate success of an organization is ensured by this relation. (Lamb, 2004) 2. The aspects of managerial effectiveness and efficiency are interrelated and are highly potent if applied in a well formulated manner. Any industry survives on the potential of the strategy that is taken and implemented by the management of that industry. As a result the prime factor that should be instigated in the organizational operational activities is the proper and smooth transaction of managerial effectiveness and efficiency into an enhanced and even relationship. The relationship between managerial effectiveness and efficiency is vital for an organization because for any industry effective personnel at suitable position are a primal factor for success. A person might be very efficient at formulation and modeling strategy. But the same person might not be an effective administrator. That is way it becomes important to position the best person possible at position where the efficiency could be yielded at maximum. Thus relation between managerial effectiveness and efficiency becomes an object of prime concern for any organization. It can be stated that by the term managerial effectiveness it is understood as the positional utility of a personnel whereas by the term efficiency it is reflected that the potential of the positional utility is utilized in full.   To compile and relate these two important variables it is important to evaluate the human resource structure at its maximum to yield the utmost possible result. The success and failure of an organization largely depends on such a formulation and practical implementation of the human resource department at its highest extent. The managerial effectiveness and efficiency is the keystone of success and the competitive advantage of an organization is dependent on such important organizational factors or variables. (King, 2001) References: King, H; (2001); Management Principals Today; HBT & Brooks Ltd Lamb, Davis; (2004); Cult to Culture: The Development of Civilization on the Strategic Strata; National Book Trust. Modern Management Corporate Social Responsibility is the duty of the management of the company to ensure that the welfare of the society is brought about along with promoting the development and wellbeing of the company.   It is the duty of the manager to ensure that both the social interests and the organizational interests are maintained and developed (Cresto, 2006).   However, at the moment, the opinion regarding corporate involvement in social responsibilities is differing.   The arguments for and against social responsibility activities by the corporate could be considered.Positive outcomes for the business by performing social responsibility activities:-The good name and the reputation of the company would be promoted as they would perform their duty of maintaining and developing the interests of the society.  As the interests of the society are improved, the social system would improve and this could also be beneficial for the corporate.  The management of the corporate would be more interested in maintaining the interests of the society along with the organization.   Hence, the Human resources that would be a part of the corporate would be of high quality.As the organization would mutually benefit with the society, the ability of the company to grow and survive in that particular society would be higher.   Hence, the corporate could move into identifying and organizing certain long-term plans.   On a long-term basis, the chances of developing sustained profits would be higher if social interests are maintained.  The unemployment rates in the society and the job satisfaction in the company would improve due to the economic growth felt by the corporate presence.  If the consumers are a part of the society, the chances of developing and maintaining relationships with them would be higher.]Negative outcomes for the business by performing social responsibility activities:-  According to Friedman, the chances of the management to indulge in unethical prac tices are higher so as to make profits that would ensure performance of social responsibilities.They could be a conflict within the management or outside the management for maintaining the goals of the organization or the goals of the society.The corporate would be spending the money of the consumers on maintaining and developing the interests of the society.   This could raise the prices of the goods or services produced by the company.   Consumers may prefer to purchase a product or services from a company that does not have a social benefit policy than a company that does, as the price is more likely to be less.The stakeholders of the corporate and the potential investors may not want to invest in that particular company, as they fear that they would be losing their money on social beneficial activities. The company would be using fewer resources on production (as the financial resources are spending on social interests).   The production would decrease and the chances of h aving higher amounts of profit would be lowered.   The company’s ability to develop a stronger long-term plan would be less likely.A Multinational corporation (MNC’s) is a company that has its presence felt in more than one nation across the World or does business at the global level.   The term MNC’s was utilized in the 1970’s in the US.   MNC’s usually do not consider national barriers that would restrict business.   Recently, the foreign investment in the US has improved drastically, and the chances of it improving further in the future are realistically high.   The process of a company becoming a multinational occurs in stages.In the first stage, the company merely exports products to foreign nations.   In the second stage, the company develops sales units in the foreign nations.   In the third stage, the company would permit foreign-based companies to make and sell their products and services under the main company’s name.    In the fourth stage, manufacturing units are set up by the company in the foreign nation.   In the fifth step, the management of the company is multi-nationalized in such a way that a corporate decision in the parent company would be affected in the foreign nations.   In the last stage, the ownership of the company is multi-nationalized.Two companies that are US-based MNC’s include General Electric and IBM.   General Electric had sales of $ 129, 853 million in the year 2001 (Listed by Forbes Global).   The portion of foreign sales was about 33 % and the net profits were about $ 12, 735 million.   It has $ 437, 006 million as assets and it market value is about 406, 525 million $.   The enterprise value of the company is about 613, 268 million $.   IBM has sales of about $ 88, 396 million in the year, and its foreign sales is about 58 % of the total sales.   Its net profit of about $ 8, 093 million, and its total assets is about 88, 349 million $.   It h as a market value of about 167, 206 million dollars and the enterprise value is about 194, 097 million $ (Cresto, 2006).Two foreign investors MNC’s that have invested in the US include Daimler Chrysler AG (from Germany) which is an automobile company and ING Group (from Netherlands) which offers financial services.   Daimler Chrysler AG had a total revenue of 86, 071 million $ in the year 2001 in the US, and its total assets in the US was more than 82, 000 million $ in the US.   The ING Group had revenue of about 14, 997 million $ in the year 2001 in the US and its net income was about 442 million US $ (Cresto, 2006).References:Cresto, S. C. and Cresto, S. T. (2006). Chapter 3: Corporate Social Responsibility and Business Ethics, Modern Management, (10th ed), New Jersey: Upper Saddle River, pp. 50-76.Cresto, S. C. and Cresto, S. T. (2006). Chapter 2: Modern Management Challenges, Modern Management, (10th ed), New Jersey: Upper Saddle River, pp. 80-102.Cresto, S. C. and Cr esto, S. T. (2006). Chapter 2: Modern Management Challenges, Modern Management, (10th ed), New Jersey: Upper Saddle River, pp. 106-111.